Глагольные конструкции.

 
Все глагольные конструкции, как мы уже обсуждали, можно условно разбить на пять основных видов:

1. S + vi: The sun disappeared.

2. S + copula + subject Complement: Jack is [my friend].

3. S + vt + direct Object: Jane bought [a car].

4. S + vt + indirect Object + direct Object: He gave [me] [a book].

5. S + vt + direct O + object Complement: They elected [him] captain.

Для каждого типа возможны различные вариации с разными сочетаниями в роли элементов конструкции, а также усложнения их с помощью обстоятельств (в некоторых случаях они обязательны).

Как отдельный вид можно выделить конструкции с seem (и несколькими похожими глаголами).

1. It seems (to me) (that) somebody wants/is calling you.
В этой конструкции может также употребляться глагол appear.

2. Somebody seems (to me etc.) to want/be calling you.

В этой конструкции может также употребляться глагол appear.

3. It seems (that) somebody wants/ is calling you.

В этой конструкции могут также употребляться глаголы appear, happen (а также chanced, после которого глагол в that-предложении должен быть в прошедшем времени).

4. Somebody seems to want/be calling you.
В этой конструкции могут также употребляться глаголы appear, happen.

5. It seems (to me etc.) as if/though somebody wants/is calling you.

В этой конструкции могут также употребляться глаголы appear, look, sound.

Во всех таких случаях глагол seem (и схожие) относится ко всему предложению. Т.е. в предложении ‘Somebody seems to be calling you’ глагол seems относится не к подлежащему somebody, а ко всей ситуации, что кто-то звонит (отсюда и необходимость рассматривать такие конструкуции отдельно).

 
1. Непереходные глаголы иногда употребляются без всякого обстоятельства.

The sun disappeared.
We all breathe, eat, and drink.
The sun was shining.
The moon rose.
Fishes swim.
It was raining.
What I said does not matter.

2. Гораздо чаще встречается конструкция vi + обстоятельство

В качестве обстоятельства могут употребляться

(1) наречия и группы наречия:

Mary photographs well.
The book sold rapidly.
These shirts wash very easily.
This pen writes smoothly.

(2) группы существительного, обозначающие вес, расстояние, цену и т.п. Как правило, их можно употреблять с предлогом for:

We walked (for) five miles.
He has traveled thousands of miles.
They had come a long way.
The soldiers marched a long way.
The forests stretch (for) hundreds of miles.
He fell fifty feet.
The rain lasted all day.
We waited (for) two hours.
Won't you stay (for) the night?
The baby weighs nine pounds.
The temperature fell several degrees.
The work took (them) three hours.

(3) Предложные обороты:

You can rely upon that man!
You can rely upon his discretion.
You can rely upon his being discreet.
Can I count on your help?
He succeeded in solving the problem.
Do you believe in getting up early?
He failed in his examinations.
They all longed for the holidays.
You needn't wait for me.
This belongs to me.
Have you decided upon a career yet?
Listen to what I have to say.
He aimed at the tiger.
She complained of the heat.

Многие непереходные глаголы образуют с предлогами тесные сочетания (например, listen to слушать, look for искать и т.п.) и по смыслу близки к переходным глаголам.

■ Может употребляться дополнительно инфинитивный оборот:

I rely [upon you to be discreet].
Can I count [on all of you to help]?
Everyone was longing [for the term to end and the holidays to begin].
I will arrange [for a taxi to meet you at the station].
We're waiting [for John to arrive].
She always so much wished [for everyone to be happy].
He pushed the glasses along the counter and nodded [for them to be refilled].
We have fixed [for the meeting to be held on Friday].

■ Наречия (особенно here и there) могут переносится в начало предложения, чтобы сделать на них акцент:

There she goes!
There they come!
Here comes the bus!
Up go the prices.

3. Часто употребляется сочетание vi + инфинитив

Инфинитив может выражать:

(1) цель:

We stopped to have a rest.
I am waiting to hear your explanation.
He got up to answer the bell.
I stood up to see better.
They ran to help her.

(2) результат:

He came to see that he was mistaken.
He lived to be ninety.
You will live to regret it.
He is growing to be more obedient.

(3) Инфинитив может соответствовать второй части сложносочиненного предложения:

Не awoke to find the house on fire.
The drunken man awoke to find himself in prison.
The good old days have gone never to return…

(4) В некоторых случаях на инфинитив падает большая смысловая нагрузка, чем на смысловой глагол.

We happened to be there.
I chanced to meet him in the park.
They seemed not to notice it.

4. Возможен вариант vi + that-предложение

I agree that it was a mistake.
He complained that he had been underpaid.
He insists that he was nowhere near the scene of the crime.
He rejoiced that he had won the first prize.
I will see (to it) that everything is ready in time.
He boasted that no one had ever beaten him at chess.

5. И употребляется конструкция vi + (предлог) + wh-клоз:

Everything depends on whether you pass the examination.
I don't care about where you go.

 
В этом случае возможны такие варианты конструкции:

1. Subject + linking verb + adjective phrase (sC)
2. Subject + linking verb + noun phrase (sC)
3. Subject + linking verb + adverb phrase/prepositional phrase (sC)

1. Subject + linking verb + adjective phrase (as subject complement)

The girl seemed restless.
It seems silly.
He was intelligent.

(1) Глаголы-связки могут выражать неизменное состояние. Это относится к глаголам be, seem, appear, feel, look, sound, taste, keep, stay, remain (и иногда lie, rest и stand):

They don’t seem [very happy] up there, you know.
He was [too clever for them].
It looked [a bit big].
Gеоrgе is/seems (to be)/ appears [(to be) intelligent].
I feel [tired].
This box feels [strong]. ( = It seems strong when one feels it)
You seem [(to be) look]/sound [rather sad] today.
The fruit seems [(to be) ripe].
The fruit looks/tastes [ripe].

You must keep/stay [quiet for a few days].
The situation remains [unchanged].
Broken glass lay [scattered all over the road].
He just lay flat [on the bed], without moving.
You may rest [assured that there will be no danger].
You are [quite right] and I stand [corrected].
They won’t succeed. Oh no. We’ll stand [firm].

(2) Также глаголы-связки могут выражать изменение состояния и результат - get, become, а также come, fall, go, grow, run, turn, которые обычно употребляются в типовых идиоматических выражениях:

Leeds city centre has become [better].
What makes them go [pink]?
It always turns out [black].

■ Get обычно употребляется с императивами (get ready!) и с прилагательными, описывающие временные персональные состояния:

Don't get [angry/excited/wet].

■ become обычно употребляется для выражения более абстрактных характеристик:

He became [ambitious].

Кроме того, get более характерно для разговорной речи, а become – для более формального стиля:

Get dry quickly or you'll get [cold].
The weather gradually became [colder and colder] (более формально).

It gets [dark early] these days, doesn't it?
Within a few years, George became [quite famous].

(3) Идиоматические выражения.

COME
The handle has got/come loose, and the label has got /come unstuck.

FALL
The child fell asleep/sick/ill.
The post/job became/fell vacant.
We fell silent as we tried to understand what he was saying.

GO
The poor man went pale/bald/mad.
Meat goes bad.
Milk goes sour.
Iron goes rusty.

GROW
He grew thin and grey/ old and wise/older and wiser.

RUN
The river ran dry.
Supplies ran low.
The crops ran wild.

TURN
The milk went/turned sour.
The weather got/became/turned warm/warmer.
In autumn, the leaves turn yellow.

Другие подобные сочетания: blush red, die young, freeze solid, keep quiet, lie awake, loom large, slam shut.

2. Subject + linking verb + noun phrase (as subject complement)

She's my cousin.

(1) Ряд глаголов-связок, которые допускают комплементацию в виде adjective phrase, могут иметь в качестве комплемента noun phrase - appear, be, become, feel, look, remain, seem, sound:

George was [my friend].
Samantha’s not [my friend].
Well, it became [a liability].
George was [a student]. He stayed/remained [a student] all his life.
Jack was [a soldier] and then became [a famous actor].
This looks [a delicious meal].
He seemed [a nice enough lad].
His cousin felt/seemed [(to be) a fool].

Глагол turn в значении become встречается только в таких предложениях:

The knight turned [traitor] and fought against the King.

Turn into в этом же значении употребляется так:

At 0 degrees Centigrade, water becomes/turns into ice.

(2) Некоторые глаголы, которые употребляются с прилагательными в качестве комплемента, не допускают комплементации в виде noun phrase – get, go, grow, smell и taste.

3. Subject + linking verb + adverb phrase/prepositional phrase (as subject complement)
(в этой конструкции глаголы могут также рассматриваться как непереходные смысловые)

The kitchen is downstairs.
My husband's office is upstairs.

(1) С глаголами be, get, lie, live, remain и stay может употребляться adverb phrase в качестве комплемента:

Amy’s [upstairs], isn’t she?
I’ll wait till I get [home], I think.
That was [twenty years ago].

(2) С глаголами be, get, lie, live, remain, stand и stay в качестве комплементации может употребляться предложный оборот:

Your glasses are [on the table]. Don’t forget them.
A memorial to him stands [in the park which also bears his name].
It was [on the floor].

В этой конструкции глаголы be, keep, seem/ appear могут употребляться в фигуральном смысле:

We were in/kept out of the way.
Everything seems/appears (to be) in a muddle.

Get часто используется в разговорном языке в отношении изменения положения, а fall может употребляться фигурально:

We got into bed/ to our place/ into the car/ into a muddle.
The young man fell in love.

■ И еще раз вспомним, что глагол be можно рассматривать не только как глагол-связку (he is a teacher) или вспомогательный (he is reading a book), но и как смысловой непереходный в значении «находиться»:

He is [in the garden].
The cat is [under the table].

Однако в современных англоязычных грамматиках в этих случаях его тоже обычно считают глаголом-связкой.

■ В том случае, когда речь идет о постоянном нахождении чего-либо где-либо, употребляется оборот there is/there are:

There is [a table in the room].
There are [lamps on the table].

То есть, фактически берется предложение ‘a table is in the room there’ (стол находится в комнате там) и в начало предложения переносятся слова there и is, которые «сливаются» в одно смысловое целое. В таких предложениях можно употреблять there уже в его основном значении – there is a table there (там есть стол).

There is a map on page five.
There are three windows in this room.
Are there many apples on your trees this year?
There are many churches there.
There are some boys at the door.
There was no wind.
There won't be enough time.
There's no doubt about it.
There have been many such incidents.
There are many churches there.

■ be может употребляться в конструкции с here в начале предложения:

Here is [your ticket].
Here is [our garden].

Можно употреблять и there:

There is [a man at the door].

Этот оборот нужно отличать от оборота there is/there are. Сравните:

There is [a man at the door].
There is [a table in the room].

(Во втором предложении there «сливается» с is)

Если в этой конструкции употребляется личное местоимение, то оно ставится перед глаголом-связкой:

Here I am (вот и я).
There they are (вон они).

 
1. Subject + vt + noun phrase (dO)
2. Subject + vt + that-clause (dO)
3. Subject + vt + wh-clause (dO)
4. Subject + vt + wh-infinitive (dO)
5. Subject + vt + to-infinitive (dO)
6. Subject + vt + noun phrase + to-infinitive (dO)
7. Subject + vt + -ing clause (dO)
8. Subject + vt + noun phrase + -ing clause (dO)

1. Subject + vt + noun phrase

Наиболее "популярные" из многочисленных глаголов, которые употребляются в этой конструкции: begin , believe , bring , call, carry, close, cut, do, end, enjoy, expect, feel, find, follow, hear , help , hold , keep, know, like, lose, love, make, mean, meet, move, need, pass, receive , remember , say , see, start, study, take, use, visit, want, wash, watch, win.

2. Subject + vt + that-clause

(1) В такой конструкции употребляются глаголы accept, admit, agree, announce, argue, assume, believe, bet, check, claim, comment, complain, conclude, confess, confirm, consider, decide, deny, discover, doubt, expect, explain, feel, find, forget, gather, guarantee, guess, hear, hint, hold, hope, imagine, imply, infer, insist, know, learn, mean, mention, notice, predict, presume, pretend, promise, protest, prove, realise, recall, reckon, recognise, remark, remember, repeat, reply, report, say, see, show, state, suggest, suppose, suspect, swear, think, understand, warn, write:

I think [that we have met].
He thinks [(that) I'm right].
I believe [(that) you have…]

I couldn’t accept that he was never going to come back.
Some of the girls complained yesterday [that we’re not cleaning the inside of the fridges].
I’d forgotten [that you’d rung somebody up].
Her therapist held [that it was natural and healthy for human beings to assume that bad things happened only to other people in remote areas].
So, every time, I remark [that he’s losing weight].
I can understand [that she must have felt she was under some pressure].

С глаголами depend, insist и swear возможна конструкция: I will see (to it) (that) nothing happens.

You may depend (up)on it that I shall support you. {(Up)on it – обязательно}
I must insist ((up)on it) that everyone leaves the room. {(up)on it – необязательно}
I saw/can swear (to it) that he never left my sight. {to it – необязательно}

(2) С глаголами recommend, agree, arrange, ask, command, consider, decide, desire, disagree, insist, intend, propose, request. suggest, urge может употребляться конструкция:

We recommend [(that) he should go/go].

Употребление should+инфинитив характерно для британского английского, а глагол в форме subjunctive – для американского диалекта).

(3) Глагол regret, а также такие обороты как I am sorry или It is a pity употребляются в таких конструкциях:

I regret [(that) he should feel/feels that way].
(вариант с should в американском английском звучит неестественно)

■ That часто опускается таких конструкциях в разговорном языке, особенно после think:

I think [he’s bored with his job].

That также часто опускается, если подлежащее в придаточном предложении совпадает с подлежащим главного предложения:

The guy now claims [he didn’t do it].
I hope I’ve got [the right size].
He reckons [he’s made a mistake].

Тенденция к сохранению that характерна для формального стиля:

In chapter three it was mentioned [that the effect of getting large volumes of water mixed up in a volcanic eruption is to make it more violent].
We knew very quickly [that we could talk to each other about anything and that we’d be there for each other].

(4) Возможны такие конструкции:

He admitted to his employer [that he had made a mistake].
He confessed to her [that he had spent all his money].
I suggested to them [that it might be better to wait].
We explained to everyone [that the delay was evitable].
She said to him [that. . .]

3. Subject + vt + wh-clause (как прямое дополнение)

(1)
Can you guess [what she said]?
We understand [what you're saying].
I wonder [what they said].
Nobody will believe [how difficult this work has been].
I wonder [why he hasn’t come].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы: anticipate, arrange, ascertain, ask, care, check, choose, confirm, consider, decide, depend, discover, discuss, doubt, enquire, establish, explain, find, forget, guess, hear, imagine, inquire, judge, know, learn, mind, notice, observe, out, predict, prove, realise, remember, say, see, show, tell, think, wonder.

Could I possibly ask [why you’re unable to attend]?
I’ll just find out [who you need to speak to].
Nobody can predict [what’s going to happen in life].
You can never tell [what Jack is going to do next]. (tell = predict)

После глаголов wonder, ask, consider, decide, explain, find out, forget. know, realise, remember, understand, agree/ disagree могут употребляться предлоги about, as to и on:

They agreed [about/as to/on where to go next].
They disagreed [about/as to/on where to go next].

(2)
I asked [if/whether he had gone].
You have to decide [whether or not you want it].

В конструкции с whether/if могут употребляться глаголы ask, decide, doubt, enquire, find out, forget, not know, not say, wonder.

4. Subject + vt + wh-infinitive

(1) В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы: arrange, ask, check, choose, consider, decide, discover, discuss, enquire, establish, explain, find, forget, imagine, inquire, judge, know, learn, notice, observe, out, remember, say, see, show, tell, think, wonder:

I learned [how to sail a boat].
How did you know [who to write to]?
I wonder [what to do].
I wonder [how to get there].
Do you know [how to do it]?
I forget [where to turn off the main road].

Can you explain [how to use this machine]?
I’m just wondering [what to say to you].
The committee reports to the Head of Department, [who can then choose whether to take action].

5. Subject + vt + to-infinitive

We've decided [to move house].
They decided [to buy it].
I want [to go home].

С инфинитивом могут употребляться глаголы afford, agree, aim, arrange, ask, attempt, begin, choose, claim, continue, decide, demand, fail, forget, hate, help, hope, intend, learn, like, long, love, manage, mean, need, neglect, offer, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, propose, refuse, remember, (can hardly) stand, start, try, want, wish:

They couldn’t afford [to put the heating on].
But they are unlikely [to forgive the company for failing to warn them so many things could go wrong].
I managed [to make it sound a lot better than it was].
Well, Laura, I can’t promise [to be up at four or five in the morning].

6. Subject + vt + noun phrase + to-infinitive

(1) Это фактически вариант предыдущий конструкции, где инфинитивный оборот имеет свое собственное подлежащее (если это местоимение, то оно стоит в объектной форме) – вместе они представляют собой смысловое целое, которое можно рассматривать как составное дополнение.

They want [us to help].

Наиболее часто в этой конструкции употребляются глаголы choose, hate, like, love, need, prefer и want:

She’d hate [me to remember just that sort of thing].
They just wanted [us to be happy].

(2) С глаголами arrange, ask, long, prepare, provide, vote, wait и wish возможна такая конструкция:

I will arrange [for you to come] (vt + for + NP + infinitive)

7. Subject + vt + -ing clause (as direct object)

(1)
She enjoys [playing squash].
We love [buying old furniture].
I enjoy [listening to the radio].

В этой конструкции обычно употребляются глаголы admit, adore, anticipate, appreciate, avoid, burst out (e.g. laughing), can't help, can't face, can't stand , can’t face, commence, complete, consider, contemplate, defer, delay, deny, despise, detest, discuss, dislike, dread, endure, enjoy, escape, fancy, feel like, finish, give up, imagine, involve, justify, keep (on), leave off (= cease/stop), loathe, mention, mind, miss, postpone, practise, prevent, put off, quit, recall, recollect, report, resent, resist, resume, risk, suggest, tolerate.

■ Can’t help может также употребляться с but + базовая форма глагола: You couldn’t help but laugh at it.

■ Consider употребляется с герундием в значении ‘think about doing something’: Have you considered contacting Mr Stanfield?

■ can't bear может употребляться и глагол и герундий:

Haven’t you finished [packing yet]? (неверно: Haven’t you finished to pack yet?)
They keep [changing the timetable and it confuses everybody]. (неверно: They keep to change …)
I fancy [doing some evening classes]. (неверно: I fancy to do some evening classes.)

I really appreciated [having met them all before].
He accepted that he had been abusive but denied [threatening to kill the barman].
I don’t really feel like [going out tonight].
Fewer students from poor backgrounds will be put off [going to university].

(2) C глаголами hate, like, love и prefer можно употреблять и герундий и инфинитив с небольшой разницей в смысле.

Употребление герундия делает смысловое ударение на самом действии, а инфинитива – на результате. Кроме того герундий часто выражает удовольствие (или его отсутствие) от действия, а инфинитив – предпочтение:

I really like my teacher and I like my class.
I like being in year five. (emphasis on the process itself and enjoyment of it)

I like home-made soup.
I like to make a panful and then it lasts me a couple of days. (emphasis more on result and the habit or preference)

Но с would и should употребляется только инфитинив:

I would like [to go to Spain], or somewhere else, such as Italy. (Неверно: I would like going to Spain …)

(3) С глаголами forget, go on, mean, need, regret, remember, stop, try, want в зависимости от употребления герундия или инфинитива меняется смысл.

Remember и forget
Инфинитив выражает необходимые действия и выполнены они или нет:

I must remember [to ask the secretary for his phone number].
Oh, what I forgot [to bring] was the candle.

Герундий относится к воспоминаниям о прошлом:

Do you remember [going to that place in Manchester]? (Do you remember when we went to that place …?)
I’ll never forget [landing at Hong Kong airport for the first time].(I’ll never forget when we landed …)

go on
She went on [sleeping] as the sun crept up. (she was sleeping, and continued)
Some people do go on [to have two, three, or even four face-lifts] but this is rare. (after they have had the first face-lift, they then have a second, etc.)

mean
[Getting the earlier flight] means leaving here at 6. (involves/necessitates leaving here at 6)
I didn't mean [to offend her]. (intend to offend her)

regret
You're really regretting [volunteering now], aren't you? (you are sorry for what has already happened)
However, I regret [to say that I think his judgments on the EC … ought not to be so readily accepted]. (polite form meaning: I am sorry for what I am about to say/do)

stop
Stop [saying sorry]! (you are saying sorry all the time; do not do it any longer)
Now and then, one of the players stopped [to light his pipe]. (stopped playing in order to light his pipe)

try
Try [re-setting it]. (re-set it as an experiment, to see if it works) [о неработающем будильнике]
I will try [to remember not to disturb you]. (I will attempt not to disturb you)

(4) С глаголами want, bear, need и require герундий может иметь пассивное значение:

My shoes want [mending].

8. Subject + vt + noun phrase + -ing clause

I hate [the children quarrelling].

С некоторыми глаголами – например, hate, like, love, mind и remember – может употребляться -ing клоз с фактически своим подлежащим (если это местоимение, то оно употребляется в объектном падеже):

I used to love [him coming to visit us].
I can remember [them asking me to carry a bottle of water].
I can just imagine [him saying that].
I didn’t mind [them playing in my garden].
Do you miss [him being around]?
I found [him working at his desk].
We mustn ’t keep [them waiting].

■ Возможны такие варианты:

I don't mind you/=your saying that.
I don't approve of you/=your staying out late.

Возможность выбора есть только если подлежащее неличного оборота отличается от подлежащего главного предложения. Если они одинаковые, то есть только вариант:

I remember (my) saying that.
( You) stop (your) laughing.

You mean she would object to his coming here if she knew? (formal)
You mean she would object to him coming here … (less formal)

 
1. Многие переходные глаголы (например, expect, fail, plan, prepare, pretend, guarantee, promise, ask, attempt, refuse, beg, hesitate, swear, hope, learn, threaten, choose, long, train, claim, manage, neglect, offer, decide, wish, demand) могут иметь после себя в качестве дополнения инфинитив другого глагола:

I plan [to visit India next year].
People are refusing [to pay the new tax].
We hope [to be moving into our new flat soon].
We expect [to have completed the work by the summer].

2. После ряда глаголов употребляется герундий (а инфинитив звучит неестественно или совсем безграмотно).

Suggest: They suggested staying at the hotel.
Mention: I never mentioned [meeting him].
Recall: Tom recalled [using his credit card at the store].
Recollect: Do you recollect [borrowing money from her]?

Keep (on): She kept [interrupting me]. The fans kept on [cheering for the players].
Prevent: I wanted [to prevent ending up in the same situation again].
Stop: She stopped [working at 5 o'clock].
Leave off (= cease/stop): It didn’t leave off [raining until midnight].
Give up (=stop): When will you give up [smoking]?
Quit: Why did she quit [working as a nurse]?

Enjoy: We enjoy [hiking].
Resent: Nick resented [Debbie's being there]. He resents [doing it all by himself].
Detest: She detests [exercising].
Despise: She despises [waking up] early.
Dislike: She dislikes [cooking and baking].
Tolerate: I tolerated [her talking]. We can't tolerate [being screamed at].

Complete: He completed [renovating the house].
Finish: Finish [washing up] and then you can use the computer.
Postpone: He postponed [returning to Paris].
Put off (=postpone): She always puts off [going to the dentist].
Delay: He delayed [doing his taxes].
Resume: They resumed [talking] after the teacher left.

Avoid: He avoided [talking to her].
Escape: The two sons left the country to escape [being conscripted into the army].
Can't help: He can't help [talking so loudly].
Can’t face: I can’t face [going there again].
Can’t stand: How can you stand [living so far away from your home country]?

Admit: He admitted [cheating on the test].
Deny: He denied [committing the crime].
Appreciate: I appreciated [her helping me].
Celebrate: He celebrated [getting a job].

Defend: The lawyer defended [her making such statements].
Report: He reported [her stealing the money].
Discuss: We discussed [working at the company].
Consider: She considered [moving to New York].
Imagine: He imagines [working there one day].

Anticipate: I anticipated [arriving late].
Don't mind: I don't mind [helping you].
Fancy: Fancy [meeting you here]! I fancy [seeing a film tonight What do you fancy eating]?
Involve: The job involves [traveling to Japan once a month].
Justify: My results justify [taking drastic action].

Miss: She misses [living near the beach].
Practice: He practices [playing the guitar daily].
Resist: He resisted [asking for help].
Risk: He risked [being caught].
Save: If we buy plenty of food now, it will save [shopping again next week].
Understand: I understand [his quitting]. He couldn't understand [her leaving so suddenly].

3. После некоторых глаголов моно употреблять герундий или дополнение+инфинитив:

Advise: I advised [seeing a doctor]. I advised [them to see a doctor].
Recommend: Tony recommended [taking the train]. I recommend you [to take a holiday].
Allow: Ireland doesn't allow [smoking in bars]. Ireland doesn't allow [people] [to smoke in bars].
Permit: California doesn't permit [fishing without a fishing license]. California doesn't permit [people to fish without a fishing license].

Encourage: He encourages [eating healthy foods]. He encourages [his patients] [to eat healthy foods].
Require: The certificate requires [completing two courses]. The certificate requires [students] [to complete two courses].
Urge: They urge [recycling bottles and paper]. They urge citizens to recycle bottles and paper.

4. После некоторых глаголов возможно употребление как герундия, так и инфинитива, но с разным смыслом.

deserve
George deserves [to succeed].
They deserve [shooting for that] (they deserve to be shot).

go on
He went on [to learn English and French]. (He ended one period of time before this.)
He went on [learning English and French]. (He continued learning the languages.)

quit
She quit [to work here]. (She quit another job in order to work here.)
She quit [working here]. (She quit her job here. She doesn’t work here anymore.)

begin
She began [singing].
She began [to sing].
(В непродолженных временах можно употреблять и герундий и инфнитив)

She is beginning [to sing]. (в продолженных временах употребляется только инфнитив)

dread
She dreaded [taking the test]. (чаще всего употребляется герундий).
He dreaded [to think of the consequences of his actions]. (иногда dread употребляется с инфинитивами таких глаголов как "think" или "consider." "dreaded to think" = "did not want to think.")

forget
I forgot [to meet him]. (I didn’t meet him because I forgot to do it.)
I forgot [meeting him]. (I don’t have the memory of meeting him before.)
I forgot [to lock the door]. (I didn't lock it.)
I forgot [locking the door]. (I can't remember the action.)

keep
She kept [talking]. (как правило употребляется герундий)
The attackers kept hostages [to prevent the police from entering]. (в конструкции keep + object + infinitive значение инфинитива - "in order to... .")

need
The house needs [cleaning]. (= "the house needs to be cleaned." – герундий имеет пассивное значение)
He needs [to call his boss].
He needs him [to call his boss].
(Чаще "need" употребляется с инфинитивом или конструкцией object + infinitive).

regret
I regret [promising to help you]. (I’m sorry that I made the promise.)
I regret [to tell you that we can't hire you]. (I’m telling you now, and I’m sorry.)
I regret [telling you the news]. (I wish I hadn't told you anything.)
I regret [to tell you the news]. (I am sorry about what I need to tell you.)

remember
She remembered [to visit her grandmother]. (She didn’t forget to visit.)
She remembered [visiting her grandmother]. (She had memories of this time.)
I remembered [to lock the door]. (I locked it.)
I remember [locking the door]. (I remember the action.)

start
Jane started [talking really fast].
Jane started [to talk really fast].
(в непродолженных временах "start" можно употреблять и с герундием и с инфинитивом)

Jane is starting [to talk really fast]. (в продолженных временах употребляется инфинитив).
I started [to learn Russian], but it was so much work that I finally quit the class. (употребление инфинитива может означать начатое, но не законченно действие)

stop
I stopped [to call you]. (I interrupted another action in order to call you.)
I stopped [calling you]. (I stopped this activity. Maybe we had a fight.)
We stopped [to eat hamburgers]. (We stopped our car in order to eat hamburgers.)
We stopped [eating hamburgers]. (We no longer eat hamburgers.)

try
I tried [to open the window]. (I attempted this action but didn’t succeed.)
I tried [opening the window]. (This was one option I sampled. Maybe the room was hot.)
I tried [to fix your sink with a wrench]. (I put in effort, I made an attempt.)
That failed, so I tried [fixing it with a wrench]. (I used a new or different technique.)

5. Некоторые глаголы могут употребляться и с инфинитивом и с герундием без особой разницы в смысле:

I hate [to leave/leaving everything to the last minute].
When the President appeared, the crowd began [to cheer/cheering].
We intend [to take/taking immediate action].
Don't bother [to wash/washing up].

К таким глаголам относятся:

Start: We started [taking walks]. He started [to drive his horses at a gallop].
Neglect: He neglected [doing his daily chores]. He neglected [to do his daily chores].
Begin: He began [talking immediately]. His thoughts began [to wander].
Commence (форм.) Based on these results, it seems advisable that schools should commence [to offer/offering explicit pronunciation practice from an earlier age than is currently the case].
Cease (форм.) The government ceased [providing free health care]. The government ceased [to provide free health care].
Continue: She continued [talking]. She continued [to talk].

Love: We love [scuba diving]. We love [to scuba dive].
Like: Samantha likes [reading]. Samantha likes [to read].
Hate: He hates [cleaning dishes]. He hates [to clean dishes].
Can't bear: He can't bear [being alone]. He can't bear [to be alone].
Can't stand: Nancy can't stand [working the late shift]. Nancy can't stand [to work the late shift].
Intend: I intend [to leave tomorrow]. We intend [contacting the company before taking any action].
Prefer: He prefers [eating at 7 PM]. He prefers [to eat at 7 PM].
Propose: Drew proposed [paying for the trip]. Drew proposed [to pay for the trip].
Bother: I appreciated that she bothered [to come and see us although she was very busy]. Герундий звучит естественно только в отрицательных предложениях (Don’t bother waiting for me.) или с отрицательным оттенком (I don't know why you bothered turning up. Why did you bother going to the doctor, if you weren't going to listen to his advice?)

При этом
(a) C глаголами «любви/ненависти» герундий может выражать действительно происходящее действие, а инфинитив – предполагаемое:

Hate [doing the same thing all the time]. It gets really boring sometimes.
I'd hate [to do the same thing] all the time. I'm lucky my job is so interesting.

(b) Like, love и hate часто употребляются с герундием, а would like, would love и would hate - обычно с инфинитивом:

I love [swimming]. I swim nearly every day.
I'd love [to go for a swim]. It's such a lovely day.

(c) Like + to-infinitive скорее выражает, что что-то правильно, чем доставляет удовольствие:

I like [to keep all these papers in order].

Можно сравнить:

I didn't like [to complain]. (= I didn't complain because it wasn't a good idea.)
I didn't like [complaining]. (= I complained, but I didn't enjoy it.)

(d) После глагола в продолженной форме лучше избегать герундия:

The spectators were already beginning [to arrive]. (не ‘beginning arriving’)

(e) После start, begin и continue глаголы состояния обычно употребляются в форме инфинитива:

I soon began [to understand what the problems were].

6. С некоторыми глаголами нельзя употреблять герундий, но возможна конструкция verb + object + participle:

Excuse the interruption.
Excuse me interrupting.
Excuse me for interrupting.
Неверно: Excuse my interrupting.

I can't forgive his lies.
I can't forgive him lying to me.
I can't forgive him for lying to me. Неверно: ‘I can't forgive his lying to me’.

vt + iO + dO

1. Subject + vt + noun phrases (iO) + noun phrase (dO)
2. Subject + vt + noun phrase (dO) + prepositional phrase (as oblique complement)
3. Subject + vt + noun phrase (iO) + that-clause (dO)
4. Subject + vt + noun phrase (iO) + wh-clause (dO)
5. Subject + vt + noun phrase (iO) + wh-infinitive (dO)
6. Subject + vt + noun phrase (iO) + to-infinitive clause (dO)

1. Subject + vt + noun phrases (iO) + noun phrase (dO)

They offered [her] [some food].

Глаголы, которые употребляются в этой конструкции, можно разбить на три группы:

a) употребляются также в конструкции с to + VP – помечены (to)
b) употребляются также в констуркции с for + VP – помечены (for)
c) обычно не употребляются в конструкциях c to/for + VP – помечены (-).

accord (to), advance (to), afford (-), allow (to), ask (for), assign (to), bet (-), bid (to), book (for), bring (to, for), build (for), buy (for), cable (to), call (for), cash (for), catch (for), cause (to), change (for), charge (-), choose (for), cook (for), cost (-), cut (for), deal (to), deny (to), do (to, for), fetch (to, for), find (for), fix (for), forgive (-), get (to, for), give (to), grant (to), guarantee (-), hand (to), keep (for), leave (to, for), lend (to), mean (to), offer (to), order (for), owe (to), pass (to), pay (to), play (to), post (to), prepare (for), promise (to), quote (to), reach (for), read (to), recommend (to), refuse (to), reserve (for), save (for), sell (to), send (to), serve (to), show (to), sing (to, for), spare (for), take (to), teach (to), telephone (to), tell (to), throw (to), wish (to), write (to).

She gave [me] [her email address].
I showed [you] [the way].
He brought [them] [some cakes].
I lent [my niece] [£500].
I offered [him] [a drink].
I showed [you] [his photo], remember?

■ Непрямое дополнение чаще всего личное:

accord me an interview
advance me some money
allow me a discount
ask me a question
book me a room
cash me a cheque
cause me a lot of trouble
charge me two pounds
cost me a pound
deal me a blow
do somebody harm
do me a favour
forgive me (for) my sins
guarantee me satisfaction
play me a tune
sing me a song
throw me the ball
wish me good luck

■ Примечания:

a) throw me the ball = throw it to me.
b) глагол mean в этой конструкции употребляется только в такого рода предложениях: He meant me no harm.
c) глагол ask может употребляться с предлогом of: May I ask a favour of you.
d) глагол play может употребляться с предлогом with: I'll play a game of chess with you.

He was shown the way.

Прямое дополнение может быть опущено в тех случаях, когда оно ясно из контекста, с глаголами allow, ask, bet, cable, forgive, grant, owe, pay, promise, send, show, teach, telephone, tell, write:

- When can I know the answer?
- I'll tell/write you tomorrow.

■ Глагол grant может употребляться так: This is rather difficult, I grant you.

■ Непрямое дополнение может выражать и неодушевленный предмет с push, pull, wash, rub, polish, употребляемых и как существительное и как глагол.

He gave [George /the door] [a push] = He pushed George /the door.

2. Subject + vt + noun phrase (directO) + prepositional phrase

(1) to

Please say [something] [to us].
I offered [my condolences] [to the family].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы bring, give, grant, hand, leave, lend, offer, owe, pay, promise, read, send, serve, show, teach, tell, throw:

George handed [the bottle] to William.
She sent [an email] to him.
I taught [English] to adults.
He read the letter to all his friends.
He offered [some] to everyone in the room.
He sold [his car] to a man from Leeds.
He gave [a book] to George.

■ Ряд глаголов не может так употребляться:

I envied [him] [his success].

Неверно: I envied his success to him.

■ Эта конструкция предпочтительнее, если непрямое дополнение длиннее: Give those papers to the girl at the door.

■ Все глаголы, помеченные (to) в списке, могут употребляться и в конструкции vt + iO = dO, которая предпочтительнее, если непрямое дополнение короче, чем прямое: Give me that bundle of papers.

■ В случае, если нужно сделать смысловое ударение, более короткое дополнение может идти в конце предложения: Give that bundle of papers to ME, not to HIM.

■ Ряд глаголов употребляется в этой конструкции, но не в конструкции vt + iO + dO: announce, confess, demonstrate, describe, entrust, explain, mention, point out, propose, report, say, state и suggest.

■ Эта конструкция предпочтительнее, если в качестве дополнений выступают два местоимения:
She wrote her name and address on the card and gave [it] to me. (или: … ‘and gave me it’; или более формально: ‘… and gave it me’)
I think my mother gave [them ]to them. (лучше, чем: … gave them them).

(2) for
He provided [books] for George (vt + direct object + for)
She bought [a dictionary] for her brother.
Have you left [any food] for the other members of the party?
She has made [coffee] for all of us.

Некоторые глаголы (например, find, order, save, make, reserve, spare) употребляется с косвенным дополнением с предлогом for:

Her mother made [me] a lovely sweater.
Her mother made [a lovely sweater] for me. (неверно: Her mother made a lovely sweater to me.)
I’m going to be late. Can you save [me] [a seat]? Can you save [a seat] for me? (неверно: Can you save a seat to me?)

(3) Ряд глаголов употребляется с косвенным дополнением (предложным оборотом) c другими предлогами.

He told [us] about the fire.

К таким глаголам относятся:
accuse … of
charge … with
compare … with
congratulate … on
convince … of
deprive … of
inform … of
interest … in
introduce … to
persuade … of
prevent … from
protect … from
provide … with
refer … to
relieve … of
remind … of
rob … of
sentence … to
serve … with
subject … to
suspect … of
tell … about
thank … for
treat … to
warn … of

The police charged [him] with dangerous driving.
Steven introduced [him] to me. (Неверно: Steven introduced me him.)
She said she’d provide [me] with a list of all managers. (Сравните: She said she’d give me a list of all managers.)
The steward tried to relieve [me] of my overcoat.
She thanked [her colleagues] for all the cards and presents.
I want to treat [you] to a drink.

■ Следует запомнить: congratulate someone (on something); thank someone (for something),

В некоторых случаях глаголы употребляются с типовым дополнением:

take advantage of/note of
make fun of/a fuss about/use of
lose sight of/touch with
catch sight of
give way to
keep pace with
pay attention to
put a stop to
set fire to
get rid of

■ Возможна такая конструкция:

We leave it to you/ your discretion to decide.
I must leave it to your own judgement to decide whether you should come or not.
We owe it to society to help in the apprehension of criminals.
He owes it to his father’s influence that the Committee appointed him to the position.

3. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as iO) + that-clause (as dO)

(1)
They told [me] [that I was too early].
We told [her] [(that) she couldn't have them].
He convinced [us] [(that) he could do it].
Did he warn [you] ][that he might be late]?
Remind [him] [that the meeting is on Friday].

C глаголами assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade, remind, tell непрямое дополнение обязательно:

The bank manager convinced them that it was not a good time to start a business. (Нельзя: The bank manager convinced that it was not a good time to start a business.)
Remind her that the committee meeting is on Monday.

■ С глаголами show, bet, promise, report и warn непрямое дополнение можно опускать:

He showed (us) [(that) he could do it].

■ Возможна такая конструкция с косвенным дополнением (to + NP):

He explained (to us) [that he was on a diet].

(2)
Глаголы acknowledge, admit, announce, complain, confess, explain, mention, point out, propose, prove, recommend, remark, report, say, state и suggest допускают комплементацию в виде предложного оборота и that-clause как прямого дополнения:

He did not return to his seat but announced to the general assembly [that he was very tired].
I want an education, to prove to society [that I am no longer dangerous].
I suggested to Charlie [that he come with me but he turned pale at the idea].

4. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as indirect object) + wh-clause (as direct object)

(1)
He asked [me] [what time it was].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы tell, advise, ask, inform, remind, show, teach:

I asked [him] [why he came].
Could you please advise [me] [what I should do].
Just to remind [you] [what we covered last time…] (преподаватель на лекции)
Don't ask [me] [what it is].
Ask [him] [where he put it].
Tell [me] [what this is].
Can you inform [me] [whether this train stops at Luton]?
He told [us] [where he had gone].

(2) С глаголами ask и show непрямое дополнение может опускаться:

He asked [(me)] [where I had been].

(3)
Глагол explain употребляется с wh-clause следующим образом:

He explained (to us) [what had happened].

5. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as indirect object) + wh-infinitive (as direct object)

(1) Глаголы advise, ask, instruct, remind, show, teach, tell, warn могут употребляться в конструкции с wh-инфинитивом в роли прямого дополнения:

I’ll ask [Anne] [what to wear].
The pastry chef showed [him] [how to create exotic desserts].
They should have told [us] [what to do if we were dissatisfied].
Mary showed [us] [what to do].
I showed [them] [how to do it].
Please tell [me] [which to take].
He told [us] [where to go].
They told [the girl] [where to start].

■ Как вариант этой конструкции можно рассматривать обороты с whether (= if в разговорной речи) с глаголами tell, inform, remind:

Tell [me] [if/whether they have gone].

С глаголом ask непрямое дополнение может опускаться:

I asked (you) [if/whether they have gone].

6. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + to-infinitive clause (as indirect object)

В роли непрямого дополнения может выступать инфинитивный оборот:

I advised [Mark] [to see a doctor].
Who taught [you] [to play the guitar]?

К глаголам, которые употребляются в этой конструкции относятся advise, ask, beg, challenge, command, direct, forbid, implore, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, request, teach, tell, urge:

Did they ever advise [you to go and see a doctor]?
Sally invited [her] [to stay lots of times].

 
vt + dO + Object Complement

1. It used to drive me crazy - noun phrase (dO) + adjective phrase (oC)
2. She used to call her Aunt Susie - noun phrase (dO) + noun phrase (oC)
3. You could put the water in a bottle - noun phrase (dO) + prepositional phrase (as locative complement)
4. I certainly believe it to be very rare - noun phrase (dO) + to-infinitive clause (oC)
5. I heard her scream - noun phrase (dO) + infinitive without to (oC)
6. I noticed them doing that - noun phrase (dO) + -ing clause (oC)
7. Let's get this stuff washed - noun phrase (dO) + -ed clause (oC)

1. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + noun phrase (as object complement)

They elected [him] [captain].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы appoint, baptize, call, christen, consider, crown, declare, deem, elect, find, hold, keep, label, leave, make, name, nominate, proclaim, pronounce, rate, think, vote:

They named [the ship] ['Victory'].
She used to call [her] [Aunt Susie].
They made [Newton] [President of the Royal Society].
They wanted to crown [Caesar] [king].
If I never saw them again, I would not consider [it] [a loss].
They declared [the festival] [a great success].
You will, I think, find [it] [a comfort in the years ahead].
You’ve done these different things and it has made [you] [a slightly different person].

■ Глагол christen может использоваться по-разному:

They christened John last week.
They christened their son John.

(1.1) Возможны конструкции по следующим шаблонам:

We considered [it] [a pity /strange + to-infinitive]
We considered [it] [foolish (of him)] + to-infinitive]
We considered [it] ][a pity /strange + that clause]

Например:

We believe ][it] [a pity/strange (for him) to say a thing like that].
We consider [it] ][a pity/strange that he never answered your letter].

Так могут употребляться глаголы consider, believe, count, think.

(1.2) Возможна конструкция по следующему шаблону (as + NP/ adjective):

We regard [him] [as a genius/as brilliant].

Так могут употребляться глаголы accept, acknowledge, claim, condemn, consider, count, describe, look on, recognise, regard, see, treat.

(1.3) Возможна конструкция по следующему шаблону:

They took/mistook [him] for an American (for + NP)
They took [me] for a fool.

2. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + adjective phrase (as object complement)

That music drives [me] [mad].
It used to drive me crazy.

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы call, consider, declare, drive, find, get, hold, keep, leave, like, make, prefer, send, think, turn, want:

I must keep [dad’s dinner] [warm].
The whole of mankind makes [me] [angry].
We found [the garden] [slightly disappointing].
We found [the house] [empty].
Please have [everything] [ready].
We hold [you] [responsible].
I don't like [my bread] [fresh].
I want [all these windows] [clean].
He'll wish [himself] [dead].

■ Прилагательное может выражать состояние, которое получится в результате действия:

The sun will burn [our skin] [black].
It will drive [us] [mad].
Keep [yourself] [warm].
Don't get [your feel] [wet].
Please leave [the door] [open].
Make [yourself] [comfortable].
Open [the window] [wide].
This will render [it] [safe].
The shock may turn [his hair] [white].
Wash [the plate] [clean].
Wipe [the windscreen] [clear].

(2.1) С некоторыми глаголами возможны два варианта:

We broke [the door] [open].
We broke [open] [the door].

В такой конструкции можно употреблять глаголы break, burst, fling, force:

We pulled/pushed [the door] [open].
We cut/slit [the packet] [open].

■ Можно говорить о некотором "пересечении" конструкций:

We believe [it] [a pity/strange (for him) to say a thing like that].
We consider [it] [a pity/strange that he never answered your letter]. (см. 1.1)
We regard [him] as a genius/as brilliant (см. 1.2)
We consider [him] [(to be) a fool/foolish] (см. 4.1)

3. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + prepositional phrase (as locative complement)

I Ieft [the key] at home.
You could put [the water] in a bottle.
I put [the key] in the lock.

С глаголами put, place и stand после дополнения необходима комплементация:

They put/placed/stood [the ladder] against the wall.

Lay и set требуют (или не требует) комплементации дополнения в зависимости от значения:

They laid [the injured man] on the stretcher.
The chicken has laid [an egg].

They set the knives and forks on the table.
They set [the table] (=set knives, forks, etc. on it).

4. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + to-infinitive clause (as object complement)

They knew [him] [to be a spy].
I certainly believe [it] [to be very rare].

Allow, announce, appoint, assume, believe, condemn, consider, declare, elect, enable, encourage, entitle, equip, expect, feel, find, force, get, help, imagine, inspire, intend, know, lead, mean, oblige, permit, presume, proclaim, prompt, reckon, report, require, suppose, take, think, tip, understand

Williams quite simply loathes the automobile. He believes it to be the world’s prime source of disease, pollution and war and a destroyer of mind, nature and morality.
She had never intended [her work] [to cause such controversy].
Most people supposed [him] [(to be) innocent].
They proved [him] [(to be) wrong].
Do you think [him] [(to be) a good worker]?

(4.1) Употребление to be в этой конструкции может быть обязательным (а) или нет (b):

a) We know [him] [to be reliable/a good worker]. (to be обязательно).

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы know, acknowledge, believe, discover, feel, imagine, judge, report, suppose.

b) We consider [him] [(to be) a fool/foolish]. (to be не обязательно)

В этой констукции употребляются глаголы consider, declare, find, prove, think.

(инфинитив обязателен в такого рода предложениях: We consider him to have been foolish (=We consider that he acted foolishly).

5. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + infinitive without to (as object complement)

I saw [her] [leave the room].
I heard [her] [scream].

(5.1) Этак конструкция употребляется с глаголами восприятия: feel, see, watch, hear, notice:

Jane used to come down here and watch [me] [bake cakes].
I heard [the bell] [ring].
Watch [that boy] [jump]!
Did you see [him] [go out]?
Did anyone hear [John] [leave the house]?

(5.2) Также инфинитив употребляется без частицы to после глаголов make, help, have, let:

They made [me] [do it].
What makes [you] [think so]?
Let [me] [go].
We can’t let [the matter] [rest here].
There’s a law firm that will help [you] [make a claim against the travel agent] if you’ve had a bad holiday.

I will/would have [you] [know that . . .]
What would you have [me] [do]?
Would you have [me] [believe that]?
You wouldn’t have [me] [do that], would you?
I had [him] [mend that fence for me].

6. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as direct object) + -ing clause (as object complement)

I heard [some one] [shouting].
I noticed [them] [doing that].
I found [him] [standing on the doorstep].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы catch, discover, feel, find, get, have, hear, overhear, keep, leave, notice, observe, see, set, smell, spot, start, stop, want, watch:

I found [her] [bathing the baby], which was lovely.
At ten o’clock every Friday they’d hear [someone] [walking up the stairs].
My next-door neighbour actually said to me that the girl next door to her had overheard [them] [talking about breaking into this house on the corner].
We saw [the car] [stopping].
Hurry up and get [those people] [moving].
George had [us all] [laughing].
Please don't keep [me] [waiting].
Can you set/start [this engine] [going]?
I want [you] [(to be) sitting there].
I saw [the thief] [running away].
We watched [the train] [steaming past].
I heard [him] [giving orders].
I can’t have [you] [doing that].
We can’t have [them] [wasting their time in this way].

7. Subject + vt + noun phrase (as dO) + -ed clause (as oC)

I got [the watch] [repaired].
Let's get [this stuff] [washed].
We found [the door] [locked].

В этой конструкции употребляются глаголы: feel (oneself), have, need, find, leave, want, get, like, prefer:

I keep meaning to get [it] [fixed].
He had [a few things] [stolen].
They want [him] [buried there].
He couldn’t make [his voice] [heard].
I heard [my name] [called].
We found [the house] [deserted].
We shall have [the house] [painted].
Where did you have/get [your cards] [printed]?
You had better have [that tooth] [pulled out].
We must have/get [it] [seen to].
She has had [her handbag] [stolen].
The General had [two horses] [shot under him].
King Charles I had [his head] [cut off].

(7.1) Find, like, prefer и want могут употребляться так:

We found [the door] [(to be) locked].

(7.2) Have, feel, get, hear, keep и see могут употребляться по следующему шаблону (и в этом случае to be нельзя вставить):

I have had [my hair] [cut].
We saw [the door] [safely locked].

■ Глагол make может употребляться последующему шаблону:

Some people can always make [their presence] [felt].
He made [his influence] [felt].
You must make [yourself] [respected].

Ставим смысловой акцент на той или иной части высказывания. Перемещение элементов предложения.

 
Как правило, «максимальной единицей», рассматриваемой в грамматике, является предложение/sentence. Но в некоторых случаях на предложение влияют другие предложения (обычно сказанные ранее) и тогда соответствующие грамматические явления можно отнести к уровню «текст».

1. При построении английского предложения считается наиболее естественным, если сначала идет уже знакомая собеседнику информация, а нечто новое сообщается во второй части предложения.
Есть несколько способов менять порядок слов в предложении, чтобы представить информацию наилучшим образом. Один из них, например, - использование пассивного залога:

A dog attacked me in the park.
I was attacked by a dog in the park.

Есть и несколько других приемов для оптимальной подачи информации в предложении.

2. Во избежание повторов некоторые слова и словосочетания могут

а) заменяться на более короткие – например:

Have you any knives? I need a sharp one.

Для того, чтобы не повторять слово ‘knife’ во втором предложении, вместо него используется местоимение one (разумеется, это возможно и рамках одного сложного предложения: The clean towels are in the drawer – if you need one )

b) опускаться, если из контекста ясно о чем речь:

Who is cooking dinner today? John is <…>.

Во втором предложении опускается очевидное ‘cooking dinner today’. (В таких случаях также очень часто пропуск слов бывает во второй части сложного предложения: When Jane resigns from the committee, I'm sure that a number of other people will <>.)