Виды предложений. Клозы.

1. После глаголов say, think, hope могут употребляться that-clauses, которые могут выражать прошлое, настоящее и будущее, но после некоторых глаголов (таких как propose и recommend) – предложение относится только к предполагаемому действию в будущем:

(1) We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith should go.
We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith should be dismissed.

(2) We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith goes.
We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith is dismissed.

(3) We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith go.
We propose/recommend that Mr. Smith be dismissed.

В британском английском наиболее предпочтителен вариант (1), а в американском - вариант (3).

Еще примеры:

I insisted that she should see the doctor at once. (или '... that she see ...' )
They have proposed that Jim should move to their London office.
We advised that the company should not raise its prices.
They directed that the building should be pulled down.

We insist that the money should be available to all students in financial difficulties.

2. Форма глагола, употребляемая в предложениях типа 'We recommend that Mr. Smith go' называется present subjunctive (отрицание в этом случае образуется с помощью просто частицы not):

They have proposed that Jim move to their London office.
They directed that the building be pulled down.

We advised that the company not raise its prices.

I suggested that he should give up golf. (negative: ...that he shouldn't give up...)
I suggested that he give up golf. (negative: ...that he not give up...)
I suggested that he gives up golf. (negative: ...that he doesn't give up...)

3. Should также употребляется в that-clauses после глаголов и прилагательных выражающих персональные чувства, суждения и т.п.:

We regret/we are sorry that you (should) feel obliged to resign.
It is right that he should be punished (that в таком предложении опускать нельзя).

4. К глаголам, с которыми можно использовать should или Subjunctive относятся: advise, ask, beg, command, demand, direct, insist, instruct, intend, order, prefer, propose, recommend, request, require, stipulate, suggest, urge, warn (that-clauses с should можно использовать также с существительными, связанными с этими глаголами):

The police issued an order that all weapons (should) be handed in immediately.
The weather forecast gave a warning that people (should) prepare for heavy snow.

5. Should или subjunctive можно употреблять в that-clause после конструкции it + be + adjective (с такими прилагательными как advisable, appalling, (in)appropriate, (in)conceivable, crucial, essential, imperative, important, obligatory, (un)necessary, urgent, vital):

It is inappropriate that he (should) receive the award again ( = ...that he receives...)

6. Should (но не Subjunctive) в that-clause может употребляться, когда речь идет о реакции на то, о чем говорится (особенно после be + adjective с такими прилагательными как amazed, amused, anxious, astounded, concerned, disappointed, shocked, surprised, upset):

I am concerned that she should think I stole the money (формально).
I am concerned that she thinks I stole the money (но не ...that she think I stole...)

7. Можно употреблять should в that-clause, говоря как о ситуациях, которые существуют сейчас, так и о предполагаемых:

It's not surprising that they should be seen together - they're brothers.
We believe it is important that she should take the exam next year.

Если речь идет о намерениях и планах использование subjunctive предпочтительнее, чем should:

I've arranged that she come to the first part of the meeting (...that she should come.../ ...that she comes.../ ...for her to come...)

8. Необходимо помнить, что в американском английском использование should в that-клоз звучит чаще всего неестественно.

A. Грамматическое время в главной части предложения.

Когда речь идет о новостях и современных мнениях, то глагол в главной части предложения обычно употребляется в настоящем времени. В некоторых случаях можно употреблять и настоящее и прошедшее время, но настоящее предпочтительнее, если то, о чем говорилось, по-прежнему справедливо:

She says that she'll have to close the shop unless business improves (или ...said...)

Настоящее время предпочтительнее, чем прошедшее если речь идет о

(1) информации, о которой еще неясно, правдива она или нет:

I hear you're unhappy with your job.

(2) чем-либо, сказанном в законе и т.п.:

The law says that no-one under the age of 16 can buy a lottery ticket.

(3) том, о чем говорят многие:

Every teacher I've spoken to tells me that standards of spelling are in decline.

Если мы передаем что-то сказанное или «подуманное» в прошлом, то в главной части обычно используется прошедшее время:

Just before her wedding, she revealed that she had been married before.

B. Грамматическое время в придаточной части предложения

Если описываемая ситуация постоянна или справедлива в настоящий момент времени и в главной части употребляется настоящее время, то и в придаточном клозе также используется настоящее время:

Dr Weir thinks that he spends about 5 minutes on a typical appointment with a patient.
US scientists claim that they have developed a new vaccine against malaria.

(Настоящее совершенное фокусирует внимание на результате действия, а не на самом действии)

Но если в этом случае главном предложении употребляется прошедшее время, то в придаточном предложении можно употреблять или настоящее или прошедшее (а также present perfect или past perfect):

She argued that Carl is/was the best person for the job.
They noted that the rate of inflation has/had slowed down.

A. Если reporting verb употребляется в грамматическом настоящем или будущем времени, время в придаточном клозе обычно не меняется:

I don't want to play any more. → He says he doesn't want to play any more.
We need some help… → I'll tell her you need some help.
Taxes will be raised. → The government has announced that taxes will be raised.

B. Если reporting verb дается в прошедшем времени, то в сравнении с тем, как предложение звучало бы, если бы он был в настоящем времени, происходят следующие изменения:

1. НАСТОЯЩЕЕ ВРЕМЯ

Смысловой глагол или оператор меняет форму настоящего времени на форму прошедшего:

(1) Present Simple → Past Simple

'The road is closed.' → I tell you the road is closed. → I told you the road was closed.
I need help. → She thought she needed help.
'I don't want anything to eat.' → Jack said that he didn't want anything to eat.

BILL (on Saturday evening): I don't like this party. I want to go home now.
PETER (on Sunday morning): Bill said that he didn't like the party, and he wanted to go home. (не 'Bill said that he doesn't like the party' и 'Bill doesn't like the party yesterday and goes home'.

(2) Present Continuous → Past Continuous

'They are repairing it.' → I tell you they are repairing it. I told you they were repairing it.
'I'm leaving!' → Bob announced that he was leaving.
My English is getting better. → I knew my English was getting better.
'Are you going to London?’ → Jane asked me if I was going to London.

(3) Present Perfect → Past Perfect

'The bridge has collapsed.' → I tell you the bridge has collapsed. → I told you the bridge had collapsed.
This has been a wonderful holiday. → She told me that it had been a wonderful holiday.

MODALS

Will , can, may

(1) → would, could, might (если речь идет о прошлом)

'No one can cross it.' → I tell you no one can cross it. I told you no one could cross it.
I can fly! → Poor chap – he thought he could fly.
We may come back early. → They said they might come back early.
The exam will be difficult. → They said that the exam would be difficult.

(2) → will, can, may (глагол в главном предложении в настоящем времени и по-прежнему существующая или предполагаемая в будущем ситуация)

'The problem can be solved.' -» They said the problem can/could be solved.

Сравним:

'I'll be in Paris at Christmas.' → She tells me she'll be in Paris at Christmas.
'Careful! You'll fall through the ice!' → 1 warned him he would fall through the ice.

(3) → will/would, can/could, may/might (глагол в прошедшем времени в главном предложении и существующая сейчас или предполагаемая ситуация).

Shall → would, should

'I shall (I'll) call you on Monday.' → She told me she would call me on Monday.

Но когда shall употреблялось в предложениях что-либо сделать, просьбах о совете и т.п., употребляется только should:

'Where shall I put this box?' → He asked where he should put the box.

Must (необходимость) → must/had to

'You must go.' He said we must/=had to go
It must be pretty late. I really must go. → She said it must be pretty late and she really must go.
'You must be home by 9 o'clock.' → She said I must/had to be home by 9 o'clock.

(had в разговорной речи звучит естественнее)

Must (предположение) → must

'I keep forgetting things. I must be getting old.' → Neil said he must be getting old.

Mustn’t → mustn’t
(не didn't have to):

'You mustn't tell my brother.' He warned me that I mustn't tell his brother.

needn’t → needn’t

You needn't pretend to be sorry. → I said he needn't pretend ...

■ Модальный глагол может появляться в косвенной речи, хотя его и не было в прямой:

'You're not allowed to smoke here.' → She told me that I mustn't smoke there.
'My advice is to look for a new job now.' → She said that I should look for a new job now.

■ Те же правила применимы к that-клоз, следующим за wish:

The road is closed, but I wish it wasn't (closed).
It isn't open, but I wish it was (open)
The bridge has collapsed, but I wish it hadn't (collapsed).
We can't cross it, but I wish we could (cross it).
I stopped for tea, but I wish I hadn't (stopped for tea).
I'll help you. Oh, I wish you would (help me).

■ Чаще всего настоящее время меняется на прошедшее даже в тех случаях, когда то, что говорилось в прошлом справедливо и сейчас:

I'm British. → I told the police I was British. (говорящий по-прежнему британец)
You can use my car today. → Your mother said I could use her car today. Have you got the keys?
How old are you? → Didn't you hear me? I asked how old you were.
That is my seat. → Sorry, I didn't realise this was your seat.

Но часто можно и сохранить то время, которое было в прямой речи, и выбор в таких случаях обычно за говорящим:

The earth goes round the sun. → He proved that the earth goes/went round the sun.
How old are you? → Are you deaf? I asked how old you are/were.
It will be windy tomorrow. → The forecast said it will/would be windy tomorrow.

В случае, если говорящий не согласен с утверждением или сомневается в его справедливости, то обычно грамматическое время меняется по сравнению с оригинальным высказыванием:

The Greeks thought that the sun went round the earth. (не ... that the sun goes round the earth.)
She just said she was fourteen! I don't believe her for a moment.
He announced that profits were higher than forecast.

Sarah told me that she has two houses (можно предположить, что это правда).
Sarah told me that she had two houses (можно предположить, что а) это, возможно, не так, б) что она имела два дома в прошлом, но не сейчас).

Время не меняется, если говорящий хочет подчеркнуть, что ситуация не изменилась:

I told you (that) the road is closed/the bridge has collapsed/no one can cross it.

2. ПРОШЕДШЕЕ ВРЕМЯ

(1) past simple → past perfect

Ann grew up in Kenya.
I found out that Ann had grown up in Kenya.

'We have found the missing girl.' → Last night police said that they had found the missing girl.
'The floods weakened it.' → I tell you the floods weakened it. → I told you the floods (had) weakened it.
I've just written to John. → She told me she had just written to John.
I saw Penny at the theatre a couple of days ago. → In his letter, he said he'd seen Penny at the theatre a couple of days before.

Если из контекста ясна очередность действий, то можно употреблять и простое прошедшее:

'I've sent out the invitations. I did it well before the wedding.' → She reassured me that she sent out the invitations well before the wedding, (or...had sent...)
I told you John (had) phoned this morning, didn't I?
We were glad to hear you (had) enjoyed your trip to Denmark.
This man on TV said that dinosaurs were around for 250 million years. (не .... that dinosaurs had been around ... )

(2) Past perfect → past perfect

'The bridge had collapsed.' → I told you the bridge had collapsed.
I arrived late because I had lost the address. → He said he had arrived late because he had lost the address.

(3) Модальные глаголы would, should, could, might, ought (а также had better и used to) после преобразования в прошедшую косвенную речь не меняются.

'I could meet you at the airport.' → He said that he could meet us at the airport.
'You should have contacted me earlier.' → She said I should have contacted her earlier.
'I could see you at eight.' → I said I could see you at eight.
It would be nice if I could see you again. → He said it would be nice if he could see me again.
It might be too late. → I was afraid that it might be too late.
It would be nice if we could meet.
He said it would be nice if we could meet.

■ С первым лицом shall и should меняются на would (из-за изменения лица)

We shall/should be delighted to come. → They said they would be delighted to come.

(1) местоимение

'Jack, you've passed your exam.' → I told Jack he'd passed his exam.

(2) слова, относящиеся к месту и времени

BILL (on Saturday evening): I don't like this party. I want to go home now.
PETER (on Sunday morning): Bill said that he didn't like the party, and he
wanted to go home.

В примере в косвенной речи уже нет слов this и now:

Bill said that he didn't like the party ... (не Bill said that he didn't like this party ... )
... he wanted to go home. (не ... to go home now)

'Your parcel arrived yesterday, Mary.' → I told Mary her parcel had arrived the day before.
'Mr X will be back tomorrow.' → They told me Mr X would be back the next (or the following) day.
I'll telephone today/ this evening → He said he'd telephone that day/evening
It happened two hours/days/weeks ago. → They told me it (had) happened two hours/days/weeks before.

DIRECT: I'll be back next week.
INDIRECT: She said she'd be back the next week, but I never saw her again.

DIRECT: Ann got her licence last Tuesday.
INDIRECT: He said Ann had got her licence the Tuesday before.

DIRECT: I had an accident yesterday.
INDIRECT: He said he'd had an accident the day before.

DIRECT: We'll be there tomorrow.
INDIRECT: They promised to be there the next day.

Но в ряде случаев изменять обстоятельство времени не нужно:

They told me Mr X will be back tomorrow (если все происходит в один день).

(1) При преобразовании вопросов с shall в настоящем времени, имеет значение задан ли этот вопрос с целью получения информации или делалось предложение что-то сделать:

Shall I be needed tomorrow? (информация) → He wants to know if he will be needed tomorrow.
Shall I carry your bag? (предложение услуги) → He wants to know if he should/can carry your bag.

(2) При преобразовании wh-клозов в вопросительной форме в косвенную речь подлежащее в придаточном клозе обычно ставится перед глаголом (вспомогательный глагол do в положительной форме не употребляется):

Where's Alice? → I asked where Alice was. (не ‘... where was Alice’)
When are you leaving? → He wanted to know when I was leaving. (не ‘... when was I leaving’.)
What do I need? → She asked what she needed. (не ‘... what did she need’.)
Where are the President and his wife staying? → I asked where the President and his wife were staying. (не ‘Where were staying ...’)

She asked me what the problem was.
I asked him where to go next.

(3) Но если в прямой речи вопрос начинался с what, which или who, а за ним следовало be + комплемент, be можно ставить и перед подлежащим:

'Who was the winner?' → I asked who the winner was/ ...who was the winner.)

При этом имеет значение, относится ли вопрос к подлежащему или комплементу:

Who is the best player here? (вопрос относится к подлежащему – возможный ответ: John is the best player here.)
What is the time? (вопрос относится к комплементу – возможный ответ: The time is 4.30, не 4.30 is the time)

В первом случае одинаково возможны два варианта порядка слов:

Who's the best player here? → She asked me who was the best player./ She asked me who the best player was.
What's the matter? → I asked what was the matter./ I asked what the matter was.
Which is my seat? → She wondered which was her seat. / She wondered which her seat was.

Только один вариант предпочтительнее, если вопрос с who/what/which относится к комплементу:

What's the time? → She asked what the time was. (лучше, чем She asked what was the time.)

■ Служебный глагол do в таких случаях употребляется только, если в прямой речи он был в отрицательной форме:

He asked (me) why I didn't want anything to eat.
She asked me where I found it (не ‘...where did I find it./...where I did find it’.)

(4) yes/no questions

При преобразовании в косвенную речь yes/no-вопросов употребляются придаточные предложения с if или whether:

The driver asked if/whether I wanted the town centre.
I don't know if/whether I can help you.

При этом
(1) В косвенной речи после if для выражения будущего времени используется грамматическое будущее, а не настоящее:

I'm not sure if I'll see her tomorrow. (не ... if I see her tomorrow.)

Обычный порядок в wh-, if-/whether-клозах такой же, как в утвердительных предложениях:

Have you seen Paul recently? → She wanted to know if I had seen Paul recently.

Liz wanted to know if/whether we had any photos of our holiday.

(2) Знак вопроса в таких случаях не употребляется:

We asked where the money was. (не ... where the money was?)

(3) Такая же структура употребляется и в ответах на вопросы:

I knew how they felt. (не ... how did they feel)
Nobody told me why I had to sign the paper. (не ... why did I have to sign... )

Связываем ситуации межу собой. Сложносочиненные предложения.

Процитируем 'Longman student grammar of spoken and written English':

Here are two types of words traditionally called conjunctions in English: coordinators (also called coordinating conjunctions), and subordinators (or subordinating conjunctions). Coordinators are used to indicate a relationship between two units such as phrases or clauses. Coordinators link elements which have the same syntactic role, and are at the same level of the syntactic hierarchy.

Thus, in any structure [X + coordinator + Y], X and Y are equivalent. The main coordinators are and, but, and or. In the following examples, the coordinated elements are marked by [ ]:

[Mother] and [I] saw it.
[I don't want to speak too soon], but [I think I have been fairly consistent this season].
Is this necessarily [good] or [bad]?

Or has a rather infrequently used negative counterpart, nor, which is used after negative clauses:

[The donkeys did not come back], nor [did the eleven men], nor [did the helicopter].

As this example shows, coordinators can be used to connect more than two elements.

И цитата оттуда же:

Each simple coordinator can be combined with another word, to make a correlative coordinator:
both [X] and [Y] either [X] or [Y] not (only) [X] but (also) [Y] neither [X] nor [Y]
For example: The couple were both [shoved] and [jostled]. It's yes or no, isn't it? Either [you agree with it] or [you don't agree with it].
We used not only [the colors reflected from mineral surfaces] but also [the colors transmitted through minerals in microscopic thin sections].
Neither [Jack] nor [Jane] had slept that night, but they looked happy anyway.

Сложноподчиненные предложения.